پژوهشنامه مکتب های ادبی
پیاپی 9 (بهار 1399)

Strictly speaking, Nostalgia implies a passion to recover lost traditions, and modernity as its theorists have put, carries in its core a feeling of necessity to reject every forms of tradition. It thus seems the experience of modernity and the experience of nostalgia stand radically in opposite. The aim of this article is to shed a light on how nostalgia, in a sociological sense, is a result or consequence of transforming from a pre-modern world to a modern world. In this effect, three key thinkers and critics of modernity have assisted us: George Simmel, Max Weber and George Lukacs. Simmel by tragedy of culture, Weber by Instrumental rationality and Bureaucratization and Lukacs by discussing forms of fetishism and reification, in one way or another, tried to identify the cultural core of modernity. By emphasizing on some canonical works of western modern literature and modern art schools, it is endeavored to reformulate and conceptualize the relationship between nostalgia, modernity and modernism and ultimately it will be shown how the contemporary world, through its all dimensions. convey different cultural forms of nostalgia.

Realism school commits itself to the precise re-creation of human society. The realist artists, by dealing with the life of heroes, represent the social and political situation of a nation, therefore, the fiction works of the Holy Defense due to reflecting the realism are among the remarkable works. Regarding the position and importance of realism in the realistic works of the Holy Defense, this article aimed to analyze the components of realism in the novel of “love in wartime” in a descriptive-analytical method. The results of studies revealed that this novel with its features such as describing the details, creating the world within the fictional characters, paying attention to the time and place, emphasizing the tangible realities of life, using colloquial language, typifying the characters, illustrating the awkward events of society and so on, is among the realistic novels. 

Magical realism is one of the branches of the school of realism where reality and imagination are intertwined; In such a way that the events and personalities of the real world appear to be completely natural and believable to the reader. Mohammad Rudgar's "Seventh Invocation" is one of the featured and distinguished works in the field of stability literature and revolutionary literature. In this novel, Mohammed Rudger has chosen magical realism to express the spiritual dimensions and events beyond the revolution and the sacred defense of literary styles. In this descriptive-analytical study, the components and characteristics of magical realism in the novel "Seventh Impact" are identified and investigate to explain the transformation of the components of magical realism in this story and the author's ways of localizing them. The findings of the study indicate the prominent appearance of fifteen authors of magical realism in this novel. The use of Kharijah mystical habits and deeds, intense utilization of dreams and dreams and replacing them with fantasies, the use of fragrant and fragrant scents, the substitution of color element for sound and symbolic use. The sacred numbers, the magic conjunction with the mystical elements, have been some of the transformations of the components of magical realism in the novel. Accordingly, "Seventh Invocation" can be considered as an effective step in the development of the creation of works of magical realism and its localization in Iran and Mohammad Rudgar has been able to take a step further than his predecessors.

Imagism means imagery, a ideology that has had a profound impact on literature and ideologies in its short life. Ezra Pound as the founder of it was influenced by Haiku and combined it with prominent social concepts, created new poetry and content in the twentieth century. This event in world literature by the poetry of Eliot, Hume, and Pound himself provided the basis for the development of free poetry in mainstream literary currents. As in the West, these changes were taking place rapidly, Iranian poets were also unaware of this trend and inspired by the translation of poems by European and American poets and they used it in their poems. One of these poets was Farrokhzad who in the collection of her poetry was placed in the category of poets by looking at the illustration and its combination with social symbolism. The purpose of this essay is to examine the image in the poem of Hugh Selwyn Mauberley by Pound and “Let’s Believe in the Beginning of the Cold Season” by Forough with an imagism reading. This essay that done descriptive- analysis approach has finally concluded that both poets in their poems, focusing on the essence of the image view poetry as the result of particular life events.both of them are troubled by the issues of their epoch and are seeking spiritual perfection. In contrast to Pound’s poetry, Forough’s poetry is clearer and more meaningful, this is evident from the arrangement of images of the two poets side by side.

Georg Lukacs is one of the most important figures of the twentieth century intellectual and literary. Thoughts, works, and the variety of his intellectual positions that are generally influenced by the difficult political climate of those years. This has made it difficult to evaluate his works. Lukacs's literary criticism is strongly influenced by his Marxist approach. Accordingly, the present paper seeks to answer the question of what place did politics have in the theory of art and literary criticism? By preparing and defending critical realism, Lukacs transforms the literary school into a political critique of modern society and literary works. The present study, while examining the period of ups and downs of intellectual life and distinguishing the period of "Young Lukacs" and "Lukacs Late", uses political critique to show how the social and political conditions caused the proletariat to replace the novelist and then the necessity of revolution instead of the literary work. This article is a descriptive-analytical one based on Lukács's works.

This article aims at investigating a characteristic feature of romanticism, namely, romantic individualism, in a letter composed by Nīmā Yūshīj (1897-1960). According to contemporary poet and literary critic Shafi'ī Kadkanī (1939- ), the poetry of Nīmā reflects traces of European romanticism, particularly French romanticism. In this respect, we can see manifestations of what is called individual and social romanticism in his writing. Therefore, we attempt to examine representations of romantic individualist belief in a letter composed by Nīmā, using critical stylistic approach. Critical stylistics is an approach proposed by Lesley Jeffries to distinguish it from literary stylistics. This approach, using textual-conceptual functions, manages to reveal and show implicit and explicit ideologies of texts. It is in focusing on text that critical stylistics comes nearest to current mainstream stylistics. But since it has its structures and functions for analyzing text, differences can be seen between the two. The present article, using critical stylistic approach, investigates a text by Nīmā in order to reveal the poet's beliefs in romantic individuality in hidden layers of his text. Findings suggest that this particular text by Nīmā manifests some aspects of romantic individualism, but it is still not clear whether we are allowed to link the poetry of Nīmā to Romanticism as practiced in Europe. Literary movements have their own philosophical and social origins that are particular to their own time. Finding these origins in Iran and attributing them to the poetry of Nīmā need further social, historical and philosophical evidences and argumentations.